The Faust story is one
of the all-time classics of literature. A man sells his soul to the devil for
something he most desires. Marlowe's reputation stands beside Shakespeare
because he wrote The Tragical History of
Dr. Faustus.
It has a terrific opening. Faust in his midnight study, fed up
with medieval manuscripts, decides to turn to magic. He draws diagrams on the
floor, reads incantations, steps into the circle, and --- sound of thunder!
Mephistopheles appears in the smoke.
The devil is one of the great theatrical roles, combining
melodrama, comedy, and theology. It was played by the same actors who caused a
sensation in Marlowe's Tamburlaine;
who played the arch-villain in Kyd's The
Spanish Tragedy; for whose acting style Shakespeare wrote the roles of Richard III and Shylock in Merchant of Venice. Mephistopheles is
evil and obscene; he smells of sulfur and faeces; he also is a gentleman,
debonair, clever and sophisticated. Whatever else he is, he is not dull; he has
the attractiveness of norm-breaking, where the action is; not least, sexy in a
time of sexual repression. He offers what Faust wants-- what Faust doesn't even
know he wants-- knowledge, power, and beautiful women.
The Faust drama also has a great closing act, when the devil comes
back to reclaim his payment. The problem is, what to put on stage in between.
It is basically a two-character play. Marlowe has us following Faust and
Mephistopheles around, playing jokes by turning invisible in taverns, bearding
the Pope, a mix of low-comedy knock-about and high politics. At the end of 24
years when Mephistopheles comes for his soul, Faust hasn't gained much for it--
mainly a look at Helen of Troy, the most beautiful woman of all time. There is
no plot tension and no sequence, just an awareness that the last act is
eventually coming.
Probably the most successful version of the Faust story is the
1950s Broadway musical Damn Yankees,
about a frustrated fan who shouts he'd sell his soul to the devil if his team
could ever beat the New York Yankees. This version has a concise plot, as the
middle-aged fan becomes a young man and a mysterious
where'd-he-come-from
baseball
super-star. It also has a female lead, who sings Whatever Lola wants, Lola gets... and who is in thrall to the devil
because he made her the sexiest woman in the world after being the ugliest
woman in Providence, Rhode Island. The middle part of the play writes itself,
and the final scene comes on the last day of the season in the decisive game
against those damn Yankees. But this dramatic flow is exactly what is missing
in Marlowe, and later on in Goethe's extraordinarily long (10 hours) Faust.
For Marlowe, Elizabethan audiences would have enjoyed the
political parodies in the slapstick scenes. Faust is supposed to be a real
historical person, a monk in Wittenberg, the city where Luther launched the
Reformation as a rebellion against the Pope in 1517. The Middle Ages were
coming to an end, the dawning of the age of science-- which made its early
appearance in magic, alchemical laboratories and occult numerology guiding the
planets that became the astronomy of Kepler. From a medieval point of view, it
was selling your soul to the devil to overturn theology in favor of magic, trading
Heaven for life on earth. Hence the ambivalent attraction of the devil.
When Goethe rewrites the play 200 years after Marlowe, the
scientific revolution is further along; the last vestiges of the Middle Ages
are falling with the French Revolution overthrowing monarchy, and Napoleon
spreading revolutionary reforms throughout Europe. A contemporary of Goethe was
William Blake, writing The Marriage of
Heaven and Hell. Blake extols a anti-puritanical religion of the body,
recapitulating the antinomian power of the devil. Blake's most famous art is
his image of a beautiful nude Satan, and his most famous poem blends the holy
and the dangerous:
Tiger tiger, burning
bright
In the forests of the
night...
Did he who made the Lamb
make thee?
But Blake, like Marlowe, is a triumph of flashes and excerpts.
Blake's illustrated tracts are rambling and unreadable, a jumble of maudlin and
histrionic, an attempt to create a new religion in a secular age.
When Goethe publishes his Faust:
eine Tragoedie in 1808, he is already established as a novelist,
playwright, poet and much else. Among other things, he is the director of the
court theatre at Weimar. He knows very
well what is the problem with Marlowe's play: it needs a clear dramatic
development between the first act and the final curtain. Goethe supplies this
with a love story, but in this case a highly realistic one, with a very nasty
twist. Soon after making a deal with Mephistopheles, Faust encounters a fresh,
pretty girl on the street. (Mephistopheles says, on the side, that for Faust
every woman is Helen of Troy.) Margarete
(soon to be nicknamed Gretchen) knows not to take candy from strangers. But
Faust is now 30 years younger, a good-looking gentleman; he romances her, and
eventually seduces her. Then he abandons her to go off with Mephistopheles to
see the world. Her brother angrily accuses her of being no more than a street
whore. We learn that Gretchen is pregnant; then she is in prison, having killed
or abandoned her baby (it happens off stage); and she is executed for
infanticide. In Goethe's last act, angels forgive her and take her up to
heaven. In the final scene, Faust is carried off to Hell, and a voice calls out
from above: "Heinrich!
Heinrich!" It is the first time
that we hear Faust's personal name.
This is the version of Faust that gets made into an opera: by Gounod
(1859) with plenty of soprano parts, Faust as a lyrical tenor and
Mephistopheles as a baritone.
But Goethe is unsatisfied, and keeps on revising his Faust Tragedy until 1832, when he
publishes Part II just before his own death at 83. He has been working on it
his entire life as a writer. The first scene dates back to the early 1770s,
when he rocketed to fame with his novel The
Sorrows of Young Werther, about a middle-class young man in love with an
aristocratic woman; rejected by her social milieu, he commits suicide. The
novel goes viral, setting off a wave of imitative suicides. The literary
movement in Germany was called Sturm und
Drang-- storm and strain-- later renamed the Romantic movement when it
spreads to England around 1800, producing such magic incantations as
Coleridge's Kubla Khan and
anti-heroes like Lord Byron. By 1830, Goethe has outlived them; he is as old as
Faust is in the last act of his play.
Faust Part II feels like the summing up of Goethe's life,
everything he has learned and everything he wants to say. Strangely, it falls
back to Marlowe's sprawling, aimless-seeming middle section. Part II by itself
is 7 hours long if read on the stage. And what stage could possibly produce it?
Scenes call for grand palaces, with endless rooms; for jagged mountain peaks
and valleys; for battle between Emperors with enormous armies; for Helen of
Troy in a palace ridden with ghouls; for castles in the sky. As a successful
theatre director, Goethe must have known
this. What was he thinking?
Practically speaking, Goethe does not envision the enormous sets
and painted backdrops of aristocratic masques and opera. His scenes are so long
because most of the dialogue consists of word-painting. He sacrifices much of
the action to the description of what things look like. His characters, Faust,
Mephistopheles, Helen, the ghouls, step out of character when it is their turn
to describe the castle turrets rising one above the next, the streams and
waterfalls tumbling rocks in a tumult, the whirlwinds and howls and
cherub-voiced choirs they are hearing-- and that could hardly be produced in
the most lavishly funded theatre hall. Goethe can get away with this because
among his many talents, he is above all a great poet. His lines have rhythm and
rhyme that pulses along; kept from being boring by changing length and meter
from time to time-- punchy four-beat couplets; long stately 12-syllable alexandrines when he is trying to render
ancient Greece; singing choruses; snappy word-play and dirty jokes when
Mephistopheles gets the lines. Goethe keeps this up at incredible length-- some
300 pages in the German text, about 12,000 lines of verse, and as far as I can
tell, never missing a beat.
This also means that whether or not this is put on a stage, it is
above all a play for reading. And reading at leisure, reading the rhythm to
yourself if not out loud. The poetry takes over; the plot-- and Goethe can
produce some surprising twists-- does make you wonder how each episode is going
to turn out. But mostly you have to go with the poetry, for the sheer pleasure
of it.
It has been said that poetry is the part that disappears when it
is translated. And unfortunately that is true. Most of the great world
poetry--- at any rate the long narrative poems--- goes flat in translation. You
have to learn some Italian to enjoy Dante's Divine
Comedy; otherwise it is just a catalogue of cruel stories expressing the
political and religious prejudices of the Middle Ages. Virgil's Aenead
always struck me as an inferior imitation of Homer (who is good enough in plain prose translation), probably because my
Latin is so poor, but also because Homer already used up the best stories.
Fortunately for English-speakers, the rhythms and rhymes of
English and German are not so different; there are some excellent poetic
translations of Faust (especially
Bayard Taylor) that are quite wonderful in the word-painting sections. And with
a moderate knowledge of German, you can read the corresponding German text out
loud with even greater pleasure in the word-music. I would compare it with
reading Milton's Paradise Lost.
We could count this as another one of the devil-centered stories,
even if that is not what Milton intended. But he was writing just after a
failed religious and political rebellion, when he was the principle recorder
and spokesman for the rebels. The most interesting character in the story is
Satan; the best scenes are when he is on stage. There is great word-painting;
cosmic scenes like the best of Marvel Comics only done seriously; nature scenes
of the pristine Garden of Eden; battle scenes between God's angels and fallen
angels. There are also hundreds of pages which-- from a dramatic point of
view-- are flat and boring. Like Faust, it has a great beginning; then a lot of
padding--- the messenger Angels spend whole Books foretelling what the rest of
the Bible is going to say, and what the reader already knows. And the war
scenes lag with too much speech making, parliamentary style, no doubt the kind
of thing Milton had to take down as parliamentary secretary; but even redeemed
by his stately rhythms, it is tedious when it comes to moving the plot.
I suspect that Milton is what Goethe had in mind, at least stylistically,
for the five long acts of Faust, Part II.
It is great narrative poetry, told through the mouths of characters standing on
an imaginery stage. Above all, great word-painting, combined with the top
poetic virtues-- rhythm, beat, music, memorable phrase and image. Milton may be
the model for Goethe's literary architecture; but Goethe's verses are crisp as
Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner and the best of Byron's autobiographical
narratives, Childe Harold's Pilgrimage,
and (that other devil-is-a-gentleman) Don
Juan.
Goethe must have been dissatisfied with his 1808 version, ending
with the harsh tragedy of Gretchen. He wants the Faust story to say something
bigger. Spengler would later label the entire history of the West as the
Faustian spirit: striving for knowledge and power, no matter the cost;
overthrowing God, conquering the earth. Nietzsche, too, would echo Faust; so
would the creative destruction of Schumpeter's entrepreneur. The Gretchen story would have been a follow-up
shocker to the Sorrows of Young Werther.
Now Goethe re-titles it Part I, and sets out to re-do the whole story on a more
cosmic level.
Part
II looks rather like Marlowe's material, vastly expanded and treated more
seriously. Look at the parallels:
Marlowe Acts I and II: alternates between Faust's study where
he makes a blood contract with the devil; and low-comedy scenes among the
servants who borrow Faust's magic books and get into scrapes by turning each
other into apes and dogs. Goethe Part I
starts off similarly alternating between Faust and lower-class scenes; after
signing the pact, Faust and Mephistopheles go to a wine-celler where they play pranks on the
drunks by turning themselves invisible and spooking them into beating each
other. Then they visit a witch's kitchen-- inhabited by apes-- where she brews
a potion to make Faust younger.
The rest of Goethe Part I
is the story of Gretchen's seduction. It is interrupted near the end by Faust
and Mephistopheles in a mountain wilderness-- it is Walpurgis-Night, what we
would call Halloween, without trick-or-treating but souls of the dead howling
in the mist, witches accosting them. It turns into a series of satirical skits,
making fun of generals, merchant hucksters, and pretentious authors. There is
no Walpurgis-Night in Marlowe, but the satirical interpolations are much the
same. After this, Goethe takes us abruptly back to Gretchen in prison; followed
by Faust carried off to Hell.
Marlowe Act III and IV: Faust and
Mephistopheles fly across Europe to Rome. In disguise they witness the Pope
deposing a rival. Turning themselves invisible, Faust and Mephistopheles
disrupt the ceremony, fomenting quarrels among the cardinals and frightening
them with fire-crackers. The travelers then visit the palace of the German
Emperor, where Faust is received as a famous magician; the royals love his
conjuring up images of ancient heroes-- rather like the pantomime masques then
becoming fashionable entertainment. Faust provides some rollicking fun by
sprouting horns on the heads of the courtiers; the Emperor calls it excellent
sport, but the embarassed lords ambush Faust at night. Little do they know that
Faust is wearing a false head; and when they cut it off, he rises from the dead
and sprouts another head. Mephistopheles joins in with more devils throwing
fireworks and chase the assassins away.
Goethe Part II doesn't take on the
Pope (no longer topical in Germany), but the Emperor's palace gets an entire
Act I, a mini-play well over an hour of stage time. We get a pot-pourri of
scenes. Mephistopheles offers the Emperor a plan to save the regime's
finances-- get everybody digging because there must be buried treasure
underground. Then a series of personified allegories, talking flowers,
wood-cutters, the seven Graces, drunks, faeries, astrologers, you name it; all
with their own poetic verses.
Act I winds up with a thread of plot continuity when an astrologer
calls up a vision of Helen of Troy. Faust is stirred to action when told that
it is a play called The Rape of Helen.
"I'll rescue her, and make her
doubly mine!" he cries. But when he touches her spectre, it explodes
and Faust falls unconscious. While he dreams, Mephistopheles is back in Faust's
laboratory, growing a homunculus in a bottle (Vincent Price horror movie
stuff). We're off into another peripatetic phantasmagoria, this time called
"Classical Walpurgis-Night" since we are visiting ancient Greece,
with its centaurs, shape-shifting Proteus, nymphs and sirens. (Now in Act II,
another hour-plus mini-play.) A theme is starting to emerge: Faust is becoming
voracious for women-- but the world of magic is nothing if not deceptive, and
they always fade out of grasp. Act II comes to an end as the sirens sing:
"Hail, Adventure rarely ended!"
Before embarking of Goethe
Act III, let us switch to Marlowe Act
V, Conclusion. Faust is back in
Wittenberg, nearing death. Knowing his contract is about to expire, he starts
getting religion again, while good angels and scholars urge him to repent.
Mephistopheles pulls out his trump card: a vision of Helen of Troy. Faust is hooked:
One thing, good servant, let me
crave of thee,
To glut the longing of my heart's
desire,
That I have unto my paramour
That heavenly Helen which I saw of
late
Whose sweet embraces may extinguish
clear
Those thoughts that do dissuade me
from my vow,
And keep my vow I made to Lucifer.
Here
we get the lines that make Marlowe famous:
Was this the face that launched a
thousand ships,
And burnt the topless towers of
Ilium?
Sweet Helen, make me immortal with a
kiss.
Her lips suck forth my soul: see
where it flies.
That's
it. In the next scene Faust is carried down to Hell.
Now
what does Goethe do with this? Helen never gets to speak a word in Marlowe, and
is on stage for less than a minute. Goethe invents an entire new plot for her,
taking up 90 minutes of Act III. The Trojan War is over; Helen's agrieved
husband Menelaus brings her ashore at their homeland in Sparta. He tells her to
go the palace, and prepare things for a great sacrifice of propitiation to the
gods. Helen finds the palace ghastly quiet, having been empty all the years
away at war. She encounters a ghoulish woman, anciently decrepit, descendent of
a magical serpent, who tells her that the sacrificial victim to be killed is
Helen herself, followed by the slaughter of her serving maids. But as the women
ascend the mountain to the sacrificial place, she hears that another lord has
visited from his mighty castle far up the mountain peak. She ascends further,
and it is--- Faust! His realm far
exceeds the Greeks in splendour-- Goethe even inserts a disquisition on
architecture to show how building became more advanced with Gothic
cathedral-raising techniques. Menelaus and his army try to attack, but are
blown away by Faust's modern artillery. We even get a musical Ode to Joy:
Hark the music, pure and golden;
Free from fables be at last!
All your Gods, the medley olden,
Let depart! their day is past.
But
now Faust, united with Helen at last, faces the facts: Helen is ancient, fading
as a ghost, and disappears.
We
could end here, but Goethe isn't through with the Emperor theme, so we get Act
IV. The Emperor is still having financial troubles; his realms are in
rebellion. Everything is political chaos. On the other hand, if he can restore
peace and security, the people will be thankful. All he has to do is defeat a
coalition setting up a rival Emperor, whose armies are now attacking. Emperor
A's headquarters are up a mountain, guarded by hidden valleys, where his troops
lie in wait to attack the invaders' flanks. The names sound like medieval history
at the time of the German Emperor Frederick Barbarossa who fought the allies of
the Pope; but the resonance for an audience in 1832 would have been the recent
venture of Napoleon and the uneasy period of Restoration, now starting a new
round of revolutions. At any rate, Goethe's plot turns from one side to
another: it looks like we're winning-- no, they're making a surprise
counter-attack; we've taken the enemy camp-- no, we're surrounded; no, here
comes the Emperor after all, handing out victory bonuses. Above all to General
Faust and his advisor Mephistopheles for helping us to victory. Act IV ends satirically
in the scramble for spoils.
Marlow Act V, final scene: thunder; enter devils. Faust's last
words:
My God, my God, look not so fierce
on me.
Adders and serpents, let me breathe
a while.
Ugly hell, gape not, come not,
Lucifer!
I'll burn my books! Ah, Mephistopheles!
Goethe Act V: Faust in extreme old
age. He is a wealthy lord, with ships full of treasure. But all he cares about
is the project of his waning years: to hold back the sea with dykes, reclaiming
the land for agriculture. He no longer cares about sorcery, only what can be
accomplished by human thought and labor. Mephistopheles tries to tempt him;
scorns him for his mundane concerns; evokes the memories of their good old
days. Faust declares his final words before he dies:
The result of wisdom
stamps it true:
He only earns his
freedom and existence,
Who daily conquers them
anew.
We are in a completely different world than Marlowe's. Even
Mephistopheles recognizes he's out of date:
Once, I alone secured my
prey
In all things we must
feel the spite!
Transmitted custom,
ancient right--
Nothing, indeed, can
longer one confide in.
A
poetic chorus ends on a pantheistic note:
Alles Vergängliche
Ist nur ein Gleichnis;
Das Unzulängliche,
Hier wirds Ereignis;
Das Unbeschreibliche,
Hier ist es getan;
Das Ewig-Weibliche
Zieht uns hinan.
These
are probably the most quoted words in German literature. Translated, not quite
satisfactorily: Everything transitory is but a semblance; what is insufficient
comes to pass; the indescribable happens here; the eternal feminine leads us
higher.
Is
this Idealist philosophy, in the era of Kant's followers? But Goethe mocks the
likes of Fichte and Hegel. Is Goethe a materialist? Yes, but it's a materialism
of the body and the mountain climber, forest and mill-stream. He is the
arch-Romantic-- he launched the fashion; but also Classical, appreciative of
good form and the ancient Greeks. Is he religious, or anti-religious? Goethe lived a long time, participated in and
shaped all sorts of movements. He was an intellectual/artistic chameleon;
perhaps too much for his own good. But the purpose of great literature isn't
hero-worship; it's the experience literature gives you. I think Goethe would
have agreed with that.